Carbon capture and storage

Carbon catch and capacity Presentation Expanding numbers currently perceive the likely decimation upon the overall condition environmental change could have. With CO2 discharges expanding at a pace of 1.6%/Yr (1999-2005) and emanations from power creation at 23,684 Mt/yr (2005)1 in addition to no present replacement to the Kyoto Protocol*, obviously Carbon Dioxide will turn into a regularly developing danger to our planets solidness. Worryingly, from a climatic perspective as well as a cultural one too. From sunlight based and geothermal capacity to hydrogen power modules, established researchers is attempting to create methods of diminishing CO2 yield and one field of developing enthusiasm from both the examination and business network is Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). Genuine research in this field is generally new and numerous parts of its reasonability, wellbeing, effectiveness and cost have still to be completely found. As CCS is essentially putting away CO2 and not really disintegrating it, many feel CCS is count er-beneficial and the assets ought to rather be diverted to concentrate on clean vitality creation. Anyway with current outflow patterns, CCS will be a very valuable device should we see intense changes in atmosphere close to the finish of this century and need an approach to purchase time to completely use and grow clean vitality. This paper will quickly portray a scope of potential CCS techniques as appeared in figure A just as talk about the potential for CCS in our general public. The littlest evaluated possible stockpiling for CO2 at 320Gt is worth roughly 32 years of emissions!2 Few debate the way that we ought to develop to an all the more ecologically well disposed society in all faculties of the word, CCS will purchase the time required for this to occur. In the course of the last 10-20 years a few recommendations have been advanced and grown, for example, the Sleipner oil field, Norway and ‘CarbFix in Iceland. We are presently starting to get live information from cu rrent CCS ventures worldwide to break down and use for the upgrade of CCS, this paper expects to blend this data from these tasks for a concise examination of CCS potential. Profound Ocean or the profound seabed Many have estimated on potential CCS locales. One proposal is putting away CO2 in the profound sea or seabed as appeared in figure B. As the seas are now retaining ~8 billion tons of CO2and nullifying ~50% of our anthropogenic CO2 emissions3 it is as of now a characteristic CCS site. CO2 is denser than seawater in its supercritical state (both strong and fluid, see figure C)and so will sink and lake on the seabed remaining there for a large number of years as figure B delineates. On the other hand, boats would siphon CO2 into the sea as appeared in figure B where common thermohaline flows would break down the CO2 whereupon that somewhat denser waterway would lake on the seabed. While saltiness, weight and temperature all influence the disintegration of CO2, underneath 600m, 41-48kg/m3 CO2 can break up in a 1M brackish water solution,2 a genuinely huge figure. Increment the saline solution fixation and this figure will drop,however, with the normal molarity of the seas at 0.5M plainly this store has extraordinary potential. Tragically prompt fermentation of the nearby water would happen as carbonic corrosive structures. Subsequently this stockpiling strategy would likely be obliterating to neighborhood environment. The cost:benefit investigation over acidifying patches of sea rather than bringing down barometrical CO2 and that is impact upon earthbound natural surroundings and surface sea marine networks could fill a theory and brought about much discussion. This technique has so far observed no field tests despite the fact that its potential stockpiling limit is immense and incalculable. Mineral Carbonation Of comparable ecological concern is removal by means of mineral carbonation. CO2 responds with specific rocks to frame carbonate minerals. This procedure is seen normally through enduring where ~1.8108 tons CO2 are mineralised yearly yet this geochemical procedure could likewise happen underground. As opposed to mine and pound shakes, for example, basalt and peridotite to respond with barometrical CO2 on a superficial level, causing major natural disturbance because of mass mining activity and an extraordinary increment in silt flux,4 CO2 would be infused into profound geographical stores of: olivine; pyroxene; and plagioclase.Here the CO2 would gradually respond to shape its carbonates more than countless years where it would then be a close to lasting store. As these receptive minerals are found in sensible bounty in essential stone, potential CCS destinations of this nature are discovered around the world. The Columbia River basalt has been anticipated to have the option to discar d 36-148Gt/CO2 while the Caribbean flood basalts could potential store 1,000-5,500Gt/CO2. Likewise, the basalt bowl seaward of Washington D.C. could hold 500-2,500Gt/CO2.10 The vaporous CO2 change to strong carbonate includes an expansion in volume and weight. It is guessed this procedure would cause major breaking inside the basalt rock which might shape a departure course for the still supercritical CO2 (see figure D).8 The ‘CarbFix Pilot Project in Iceland is checking the impacts and capability of this style of CCS through concentrated Geophysical observing as ~9.4Mt/CO2 is siphoned into the ground. Coal-bed creases Overall there are many coal fields financially unviable for mining and these are potential CCS locales as figure A (4) appears. The coal creases contain regular micropores because of coal creation process. These micropores right now contain methane atoms, again as a side-effect of the coal creation. In any case, CO2 atoms adsorb to the micropores simpler than the CH4.2 By siphoning CO2 into these creases a volume of CH4 will be yielded relative to the volume of CO2 injected,2 while as yet giving a profound underground store to CO2. This has been determined at 20m3/ton coal from a field site in the San Juan Basin. In this manner there is a rough least stockpiling limit of 150Gt/CO2 worldwide anyway precise volumes of unmineable coal are not accessible. Adsorption includes frail electrostatic powers to hold the CO2 particles to the pore which are exceptionally reliant on a stable environment.2 Should any structural action occur to change the temperature or weight of the capacity site, the CO2 would segregate and crest. This CO2 crest would then ease back move to the surface through existing pore channels which figure D shows unmistakably. This is a concern looked in numerous CCS plans, as any CO2 relocation could cause cooperation and disintegration into groundwater subsequently contaminating it, power saline groundwater to blend in with freshwater and dirty the freshwater or on the other hand move to the earth surface and tuft. Additionally, reliant on the CCS site, CO2 could wind up acidifying patches of sea where ‘leaks have happened. CO2 crest on the earth surface have demonstrated deadly before when 1,700 individuals and all fauna inside a 14km sweep died in the Lake Nyos calamity when CO2 abruptly degassed from the base of the lake to the environment. 14 Drained oil and gas stores or saline springs One of the most encouraging and inquired about recommendations is capacity in exhausted oil and gas supplies or saline springs. Figure A (1,3a,3b) outlines these are both here and there shore and profound land zone of rock with high porosity and low penetrability. The gas field ‘Sleipner West in the North Sea simply off the Norwegian coast is a real working CCS site where much investigation into CCS is being directed and observed. 1106 tons of CO2/Yr2 are being siphoned into a space of 5.5x1011m32 recently involved by transcendently methane gas. The CO2 is put away in the pore spaces in rocks indistinguishable from how groundwater is put away in springs. On account of saline springs, while siphoning in CO2, saline water is evacuated just as constrained into encompassing stone. These Porous rocks are regularly sedimentary rocks found in bowls ordinarily 600-1200m profound. Weight increments with profundity just as temperature, by about 28Â °C/km2. This implies CO2 would should be put away in its supercritical state (figure C) which is more smaller than typical, 1 ton of CO2 possesses 6m3 rock2. Once infused, the CO2 will normally relocate through the pore spaces attempting to arrive at ground level (figure D). During this procedure the CO2 will become ‘trapped and well in pore courses which don't really prompt the surface. The inescapable relocation makes picking a CCS site troublesome. Any site needs an impermeable stone layer above it or a low penetrability rock where the movement time will be equivalent to the locales wanted life expectancy to go about as a ‘cap rock. Without a top stone, the CO2 could move back to the surface in decades making the whole activity an epic fall flat. Be that as it may, putting away CO2 in these fields isn't just about stashing it underground. The geochemical procedures of disintegration and mineral precipitation would likewise happen adding to the favourability of exhausted supplies as the ideal CCS method. F or any single site 3 distinct types of CCS would happen. Disintegration would take two or three thousand years dependant on a superficial level region to volume proportion of water to CO2 and mineralisation would occur along comparable courses of events. Subsequently, four elements will influence the value of any CCS drained repository site: immobilization of CO2 in any snares or wells; geochemical responses between the stone and CO2; disintegration into groundwater or saline water occupant in the stone; and movement back to the surface.2 The advantages of this strategy for CCS don't stop here however! The way toward siphoning CO2 into the ground powers out the residue of what was beforehand there, useful in the event that it was gas or oil. Shows this as a different procedure yet it can without much of a stretch be matched with drained petroleum derivative stores. This can be gathered and sold, giving a slight prudent balance to the expense of the undertaking. This is alluded to as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). EOR has been grasped in the Americas and is being used at Pan-Canadians Weyburn field in Saskatchewan, another field examp

Professional Sports - NBA Players are Greedy Essay

Pro athletics - NBA Players are Greedy - Essay Example haritable causes or other network centered strategies to show their help for morals and social trustworthiness, the base of their inspirations is avarice and it very well may be upheld with strong proof. â€Å"NBA players are much sought after by groupies, partiers and spouse wannabes† (Bender and Jackson, 2000, p.28). Since there is a high social interest for b-ball, these games are broadcast and communicated both broadly and globally in a situation with much scene and brilliant, blazing lights. This sort of condition offers to the social character type who enjoys the adventure of progressing energy, making the NBA player the undeniable object of these convoluted feelings. Essentially, the excitement of the games communicate and the showy behavior of the field furnish enthusiasts with the possibility that they ought to pursue potential connections or gatherings with these players. At the mental level, insatiability doesn't really need to include money related want, ravenousness can incorporate the requirement for the spotlight and to be encircled by appealing young ladies. The message, at the social and promoting level, continues getting strengthened that ball players merit V IP status. NBA players start to accept this and start characterizing themselves and their future aspirations by the deliberate misdirection of sports broadcasting and advertising. This sets an underlying seed of avarice into hopeful b-ball players who accept that when uncovered as a high-performing player, they will have their own devoted gathering of devotees, fan, and relationship-disapproved of extortionists. NBA players are eager to such an extent that they even are willing for relinquish instruction just to have this cash and social spotlight. One expert in advanced education offers that a desire to be a NBA player is â€Å"a formula for disaster† and â€Å"instead of athletic capacity filling in as a way to an important end (training), the circle dream has become the objective itself† (Graves, 2004, p.10). Understudies who accept that they will end up being the

Why I Didnt Need to Study Abroad for an Entire Semester

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Americas Constitutional Enfranchisement of Women Essay

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Assess the Short Term Significance of the Suez War of 1956 Free Essays

string(38) " Arab Nationalism in the Middle East\." Assess the short term significance of the Suez War of 1956 The Suez War had profound short term significance in many aspects. It can be argued to be one of the first wars in the Arab-Israeli conflict which involved substantial foreign involvement. Although Britain and France were humiliated and lost their influence in the Middle East, it highlighted the rising importance of Cold War politics in the Middle East. We will write a custom essay sample on Assess the Short Term Significance of the Suez War of 1956 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Egypt and Israel can be considered as winners of the Suez War; Egypt gained complete control of the Suez Canal and Israel had access to the Straits of Tiran. However, both countries were to remain hostile and the legacy of the Suez War will be conflict, not peace. First of all, the Suez War in 1956 played a significant role in Nasser’s Egypt. There were many gains for Egypt from the Suez War. American Historian, William Polk states ‘in western eyes, the Suez War made Nasser a hero’ and ‘claimed a political victory within a military defeat’, this comment clearly infers to the unsuccessful attempt of Britain and France to ‘destroy’ Nasser which made him became a symbol of anti-colonial movement. This statement is reinforced by the words of Nasser, where he wrote that the Suez War ‘regained the wealth of the Egyptian people’ and ‘it was clear for the Egyptian people that they could defend their country and secure its independence’, while this comment is partly accurate, as Egypt did manage to gain complete control of the Suez Canal and obtained a large quantity of British military stores, the source here is clearly biased because Nasser had deliberately failed to describe Egypt’s casualties from the war. He had done this to promote his position as not only the Egyptian leader, but a leader which all the Arab nations looked up to. Despite their success, Egypt had suffered the highest casualty with total death up to 1600, while Israel, Britain and France’s death were well below a hundred. Additionally, Egypt had failed to control the Gaza Strip and Photograph A shows despite control of the Suez Canal, Egypt was unable to use the canal efficiently to fund the country; for instance, by collecting toll fees. The Suez War critically damaged Egypt’s relations with America. In response to America’s cancellation of a promised grant of 46 million dollars towards building the Aswan dam, American aid was replaced by Russian aid. However, one should always be mindful that Nasser did not want Egypt to be tied to the Soviet Union as he wanted Egypt to be neutral. Conversely, in American eyes, Egypt became part of the Cold War; as any country which was not part of Western alliance and which bought arms from Eastern Europe was just as bad as the USSR. The Suez War 1956 was of great significance for Israel. We can reinforce Avi Shlaim’s interpretation on the Sinai campaign to help discuss the impact on Israel. Despite an Israeli, Avi Shlaim gives a neutral point on the impacts to Israel. The origin of the Sinai campaign was initially planned by Ben Gurion and its leaders such as Moshe Dayan. It’s 3 ‘Operational Objectives’ were to defeat the Egyptian Army, to open up Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and to put an end to Fedayeen attacks across Israel’s southern border. Moshe Dayan, in his memoirs, the Story of My Life, was confident that the three main objectives were achieved by the end of the Suez War. The Israeli army won a clear military victory which proved the Israeli Defense Forces the strongest in the Middle East; this was further reinforced by Moshe Dayan as ‘Nasser learned the respect the power of Israel’s army. Although Shlaim’s view that damage to Egypt was ‘slight and quickly repaired’ due to timely withdrawal from Sinai, Historian Normal Lowe argues that the inflicted heavy losses on Egypt in men and equipment would take ‘years to make good’. Furthermore, Israel managed to gain access to the Straits of Tiran, allowing them to trade with Asia and Africa. The end to Fedayeen attacks proved immense success, the Sinai Peninsula became effectively demilitarized guarded by UN troops which would allow Israel to enjoy eleven years of security and stability along the border with Egypt. As well as the Three ‘Operational Objectives’ from the Sinai Campaign, it consisted of three political aims; to overthrow Nasser, expand Israeli borders and establishment of a new political order in the Middle East. Unlike the successes from their operational objectives, they failed to achieve the political aims. In the first political aim, Israel paid a heavy political price for ganging up with Britain and France against the emergent forces of Arab nationalism. In the second political aim involving Israel’s borders, Israel was forced to disgorge all the territory it had conquered. The third aim however, written by Shlaim tends to contradict Moshe Dayan’s view that the ‘victory in Sinai meant that Israel emerged as a state that would be welcomed as a friend and ally. ’ While this may not be directed at Arab nations, it may have been implied in terms of relations with foreign powers. Although Ben Gurion failed to topple Nasser and achieve his political aims, the Suez War had allowed Gurion to force Sharett’s resignation which initially gave him the option of launching a war against Egypt. Moreover, Shlaim contends that Israel and Ben Gurion learned two important lessons from its experience in the Suez War. Firstly, Israel must rely on nuclear deterrence to protect its borders rather than expanding it. Secondly, Israel was to depend on the US in future decision making and must deal and directly consult with the US before engaging in future wars; this is evident in the Suez War, where Israel was pressured by US withholding aid and expulsion from the United Nations to withdraw from Sinai. The impact of Suez War led to a high tide of Arab Nationalism in the Middle East. You read "Assess the Short Term Significance of the Suez War of 1956" in category "Papers" When Nasser regained control of the Suez Canal he destroyed the statue of De Le Sepp’s; a clear message of Egypt’s contempt for western imperialism. Arabs reduced oil supplies to Western Europe showing they have become more anti-western. Syria and Saudi Arabia also broke off relations with Britain and France. In 1957, a ‘Treaty of Arab Solidarity’ was signed by Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Despite the mistrust remaining between the Arab states, this treaty highlighted the Arab nations all had a united aim to overthrow Israel and support the Palestinians. This is supported by Ian J. Bickerton and Carla L. Klausner as they discuss how Suez war ‘only deepened the Arab desire for revenge’. Furthermore, William Cobban argues that the legacy of the Suez Crisis will be ‘war not peace’, and that Nasser would rally the Arab nations to a full scale war against the Israelis. This view of Arab Nation’s continual avenging attitude towards Israel is reinforced by Andrew Goldsmith, as he argues that the result of the Suez War resembled a ‘hiccup rather than a true turning point in the history of Egypt and Israel’s internal politics’. It was one of many conflicts in which Arab countries and Israel have failed to solve any existing tensions. Another short term significance of the Suez War was that it greatly damaged leading European colonial powers particularly Britain. Keith Kyle argues that Suez confirmed to the world that Britain was ‘no longer a superpower’, as Britain’s failure to overthrow Nasser and secure the Suez Canal had cost them world degradation. With a clear indication of Britain’s end of imperialism, it led to a further decline of British and French influence around the world such as in Africa and South-East Asia. The Suez War encouraged rebels in Algeria, where the Algerians gained their independence from France in 1962. Britain’s failure had cost them to lose foreign allies; the Israelis now looking towards the USA as their main supporter. Britain’s decreasing influence in the Middle East is further supported by Normal Lowe, where Britain’s ally in Iraq, premier Nuri-es Said came under increasing attack from other Arabs for his pro-British attitude. Britain’s damage from the Suez War then led to financial trouble where its international reserve was seriously depleted. Because of the blockage of canal and the disruption of pipeline caused by the Suez War, gas rationing was introduced in Britain. This meant Britain had no choice but to become more obedient and less reluctant to oppose any US policy for its financial support . While Mordechai Bar-On, the Bureau Chief- General of Moshe Dayan states in hindsight that from the view of Britain and France, the Suez war was a major mistake. From Israel’s point of view, it was ‘perhaps lucky’ that they made the mistake, because it was to this mistake, Israel ‘became more ready for the next round in 1967. ’ France on the other hand went its own way, opposed to Britain’s decision to side with the US. Led by de Gaulle, it left NATO and turned to leading Europe alongside a newly prosperous Germany. The Suez War had a profound impact on the Cold War. President Eisenhower explained that as a result of Suez, ‘The Middle East, which had always been coveted by Russia, today be prized more than ever by international communism’, this outcome was perhaps made by President Eisenhower himself as Timothy Naftali, author of Khrushchev’s Cold War explains that Nikita Khrushchev was able to get away with â€Å"nuclear bluff†, showing weakness of the US that the Soviet Union exploited. As Egypt turns towards the Soviet Union for aid, Eisenhower was to become even more determined in containing communism. He set up the Eisenhower Doctrine which offers economic aid and military protection to Arab states that agree to reject communism. He even stated, ‘Since we are about to get thrown out of the [Middle East], we might as well believe in Arab nationalism’, showing Eisenhower’s awareness that the Middle East was to become the ‘arena’ of the Cold War. However, his comment cannot be fully relied on as it was perhaps an excuse for America to enter the Middle East with dual objectives, as in Canada’s point of view, supported by William Cobban, Eisenhower‘s beginning to commit US troops to the Middle East – ‘what he said he would never do’ – was to replace Britain with its ‘own brand of imperialism’. In conclusion, despite major losses inflicted on Egypt, Nasser was able to turn the defeat into a political victory in which Nasserism influence, where a blend of Pan-Arabism, positive neutralism and Arab socialism was to extent throughout the Arab nations. The results of the war have also proved Israel’s strength and determination in securing its position in the Middle East. Britain and France was to be humiliated and the Suez War accelerated decolonization and had caused them to lose influence in the Middle East. Relations between the USSR and USA have evidently resulted in a freeze rather than a thaw. However, the Suez War was just one of many events that had failed to resolve peace between Israel and Egypt. Andrew Goldsmith argues that the ‘internal politics of the Middle East were affected much less significantly than its external politics by the events of 1956. , Israel’s gain from the opening of Straits of Tiran and its peaceful border with Egypt were all reversed in 1967. Nasser still refused to recognize Israel. The contradiction is made by Moshe Dayan where he confirms that the result of Suez War stated ‘Reactionary and aggressive’ nature of Israel, and because it made Nasser the definite leade r of the Arab World. Word count -1986 Appendix Photograph A obtained from http://www. theegyptianchronicles. com/Article/1956Jubilation. html Bibliography Secondary 1. Michael Scott-Baumann , Crisis in the Middle East: Israel and the Arab States 1945-2007, 2009 2. Normal Lowe, Mastering Modern World History,2005 3. Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall Israel and the Arab World 4. Kirsten E. Shulze, The Arab-Israeli Conflict,1999 5. Andrew Goldsmith, http://www. hillel. upenn. edu/kedma/05/goldsmith. pdf 6. Paul Reynolds, http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/middle_east/5199392. stm, 7. http://israelipalestinian. procon. org/view. answers. php? questionID=000472 Contemporary 1. Michael Scott-Baumann, Conflict In the Middle East : Israel and the Arabs, 2007 2. http://millercenter. org/president/speeches/detail/3360 3. http://www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/COLDsuez. tm 4. http://www. historylearningsite. co. uk/suez_crisis_1956. htm 5. William Cobban, Mission Suez. The Canadian Experience 6. National Geographic : Suez Crisis 7. The Egyptian Chronicles 1956, Photograph in Appendix http://www. theegyptianchronicles. com/Article/1956Jubilation. html , 8. Council on Foreign relations, http://www. cfr. org/content/meetings/hungary_suez-summary. pdf ——à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [ 1 ]. Conflict in the Middle East: Israel and the Arabs page 23. By Michael Scott-Baumann [ 2 ]. http://www. theegyptianchronicles. com/Article/1956Jubilation. html [ 3 ]. The Iron Wall Israel and the Arab World – page 143-185 by Avi Shlaim [ 4 ]. Mission Suez. The Canadian Experience by William Cobban [ 5 ]. http://israelipalestinian. procon. org/view. answers. php? questionID=000472 [ 6 ]. http://www. hillel. upenn. edu/kedma/05/goldsmith. pdf [ 7 ]. Modern World History page 238-289 [ 8 ]. National Geographic : Suez Crisis [ 9 ]. http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/middle_east/5199392. stm- Paul Reynolds [ 10 ]. http://millercenter. org/president/speeches/detail/3360 [ 11 ]. http://www. cfr. org/content/meetings/hungary_suez-summary. pdf [ 12 ]. Mission Suez. The Canadian Experience by William Cobban How to cite Assess the Short Term Significance of the Suez War of 1956, Essays

The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Example Essay Example

The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Example Paper The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Introduction The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships 1 For decades, interracial relationships have been a deep seated conflict among many people and families in our history. Not only in the United States, but many countries around the world have debated and banned such acts. Although it has now been found to be unconstitutional based on the violation of the fourteenth amendment, societal perceptions, norms, and hate groups have still managed to persist. We as a country have come a long way in the past fifty years by recognizing the injustice in banning and punishing certain marriages, but there is still a definite stigma and an abundance of prejudice, resentment, and negative reactions attached to those who are involved in an interracial relationship. Studies have shown that as recently as 1991, 42% of respondents said that they still disapprove of interracial marriage (About). Further studies done by Bramlett and Mosher in 2002 had found that by the tenth yea r of marriage, 41% of interracial couples had divorced compared to 31% of same-race couples. In the years of 1985 to 1989, an astonishing 55% had ended (Bratter King, p. 160). One tends to wonder if these rates are higher because of the outside factors and people that are against these couples, or if this could be a reason that so many people are against the concept of interracial marriage. Some have hypothesized that interracial marriage â€Å"selects on† those persons that are already likely to divorce because of certain personal characteristics. The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Body Paragraphs Yet another explanation states that â€Å"these marriages potentially unite persons from differing interpersonal styles, and varying values attached to marriage and family. Therefore, maintaining that relationship may be more difficult† eventually ending them in divorce (Bratter King, p. 161-62). Many other theories have been conceived about what it is that tends to lead these couples toward divorce more than others; we will go over a few of 2 them. Up until 1967 with the case of Loving versus Virginia, sixteen states in the United States had laws prohibiting interracial marriage between a white and olored person. Just as it is made known through these previous laws addressing only black and white marriages, those relationships that consist of an African American and a white are still seen as the most controversial in America (About). A Ford poll from 2003 surveyed 1,314 Americans which resulted in three in ten participants expressing disagreement with black and white interma rriage. However, they were â€Å"more willing to accept white-Hispanic or white-Asian marriages†(About). The hypotheses for these attitudes were related to economic prosperity, skin color, and history of economic hardship. It is hard to determine exactly why these feelings are so strong. Many saw interracial couples as violating the â€Å"goodness of fit† belief, that these people were less likely to be compatible (Lewandowski, p. 289) and also â€Å"loss of racial caste privilege†, mostly for whites (Bratter Eschbach, p. 1029). So what do these statistics and attitudes imply for interracial couples of today? Research shows that interracial marriages have an amplified risk of marital disillusionment. Many of the previously mentioned attitudes have been shown to increase this high divorce rate, but many more theories will be explored further throughout this paper. Because of so many varying attitudes about the topic of interracial marriage, many people that are in these relationships find themselves knowing a friend or family member that disagrees with their beliefs and way of life with an interracial partner. Bratter and King say that â€Å"the negative reactions to interracial couples from strangers and 3 the diminished social support from family and friends generally characterize the experience of Black/White couples† (p. 62). These couples will many times avoid community activities because of feared racism and also have a harder time integrating into larger family/social networks. One example would be a white female partner dating a black man. She may be less equipped for dealing with the negative reactions toward her black partner and also may be disliked by black females because she is seen as a threat to their own marriage prospects and also said to be unfit to â€Å"raise and nurture her punitively non-white offspring†. These types of experiences and attitudes lead many Black/white couples to isolate from their commun ities to rotect themselves (Bratter King, p. 170). As one can see, when social support is lacking it can lead to couples’ isolation. Isolation in turn can lead to other psychological issues and problems between the couple making arguments and distress much easier to come by. One could almost say that at least outside of the direct home of the couple, negativity seems to be lurking on all sides of them. It would be easy to see how divorce may sometimes seem like the most logical or conceivable solution to these stresses. It is clear that negative reactions from family as well as from society and also outsider beliefs are aspects that can contribute to stress and negative marital dynamics, yet there are still other variables like background/values, age, and psychological distress that was just touched on briefly. In the past, interracial relationships were seen by many as a psychological flaw or disorder in the person involved; someone who had low self esteem, self-loathing, d eep psychological sicknesses, and inferiority issues. These attitudes put even more of a 4 negative impression on interracial couplings and the people that participated in them. However, after many new studies, we have seen that these views have been backward. People involved in interracial relationships have a very unique bag of issues compared to same race couples. Many can be or feel abandoned and rejected by their own community because they are viewed as â€Å"‘selling out’- abandoning their race rather than embracing their race as a valued characteristic in themselves and others†(Lewandowski, p. 01). Instead of seeing them as finding someone they love regardless of color it seems that a racial spin always has to be put into the picture. There is also an underlying resentment in many African American females when their men marry outside of their race because they see this as a threat to their own personal marital opportunities and is also felt as a negative r eflection of their personal self worth (Childs, p. 558). Also, as mentioned earlier, isolation is a common trait for interracial couples. Whether because of family disapproval, society prejudice, or just irrational beliefs, social isolation can be very damaging to individuals as well as a couple with no outlets. â€Å"Both recent and classical scholarship predict that among all married persons, those in interracial relationships are more likely to experience conditions that create psychological distress relative to their same race counterparts with a same race partner† (Brater Eschbach, p. 1028). Now that new research has been given a chance, society can see that rather than assuming that there is some underlying psychological issue in those that partake in interracial relationships, but that lack in support, isolation, negativity, and attitudes from outsiders can lead to psychological distress. Therefore, the previously thought â€Å"cause† is now a possible effect. Stress in relationships without the proper support and outlets can easily lead to tense 5 marital situations and lead to what may seem like the only logical escape; divorce. When looking at a general risk of divorce for any couple, age has seemed to play an important role. This is also relevant for interracial marriages, if not more so, as you will see. Marriage at a younger age has shown to be a large characteristic of many divorced couples. â€Å"Of all predictors of divorce, age at marriage is the most well established and most consistently predictive, regardless of time period when the marriage began† (Bratter King, p. 161-62). Studies done by Bramlett and Mosher have estimated that there is a dramatic increase in divorce rates, over 20%, between those who marry before the wife turns 18 years of age and those who marry after the age of 25 years. This is worth mentioning when researching the explanation behind such high divorce rates among interracial couples because hist orically, specifically those African Americans that marry outside of their race have tended to marry at a younger age than if they were to marry someone inside of their race (Bratter King, p. 62). African American/White relationships are mentioned specifically because these tend to be the most controversial marriage because of such social distance and also the least likely to succeed (Childs, p. 544). Although this cannot be named the sole reason for such high divorce rates among these couples, it can possibly be a starting point to explain some of the different dynamics that go on inside of these relationships. Stress from outside sources have definitely decreased over the last decades for interracial couples, but from news and studies we can tell that it is not completely abolished like the previous marital bans have been. Just look at Bob Jones University in South Carolina. Even up into the twenty first century, this school was blatantly 6 prohibiting interracial relationships o n their campus by way of threats of expulsion (About). Unfortunately these types of scenarios will most likely continue on through the years and may continue to carry on the discrepancy of divorce rates between couples of same and different race marriages. Although divorce rates for interracial marriages are significantly higher than their same race counterparts, there are many differing and unique qualities and dynamics that need to be factored in when examining the reasons behind it. There is no single cause and it most likely cannot be chalked up to â€Å"different skin color†. The perceptions, attitudes, treatment, support (and lack of), values, and backgrounds of individuals in the relationship and of those interacting with the couple, all contribute to the environment that they are in and surrounded by on a daily basis. The way that these things impact the interracial couple will also play out into their own marital relationship once they are at home. Seeing as though m any times these outside forces are very negative, one would guess that the relationship would also take a turn in that direction. Many of these mentioned theories and dynamics contribute to the high divorce rate among interracial couples in America, although many more aspects most likely add to this problem. 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